Multicultural Education: Challenges and Responses
Introduction
In this paper we will deal with challenges facing multicultural education at
the beginning of the 21st century. First however, we will briefly examine the
development of multicultural education and its present status. Here, as in the
following sections, we refer mainly to the situation in Germany, though other
societies are also considered. In some sections we refer to the situation in
multicultural Australia in order to highlight possibilities in a country that
takes it multiculturalism very seriously.
Secondly, we discuss the fact that multicultural education is now sometimes
regarded as a concept of international education dealing with the cultures of
the world. Although this is a necessary approach in our world of global relationships,
it tends to neglect local diversity. Future challenges to multicultural education
concern the combination of local and global aspects within this concept. There
is a further problem to be considered with regard to a multicultural education
that deals mainly with global relationships: The needs of children from migrant
families. The recent PISA study (OECD 2001) has clearly
pointed out that the German school system has failed so far to give them access
to a good school career that is, moreover, a precondition for economic and social
participation. It is a great challenge to improve this situation without falling
back into concepts of migrant education. We deal with these challenges in our
third section. In the fourth section we will focus on another challenge: While
education - though not on all levels of educational policy in all European countries
- has acknowledged the fact of a permanent immigration, which demands measures
of integration and the preparation of all inhabitants - majority as well as
immigrants - for a multilingual and multicultural society, there are also new
developments in forms of migration to be taken into consideration. A main point
is the question whether the model of integration in the concept of multiculturalism
is compatible with transmigration, where migrants live in more than one social
and spatial context, either at the same time, in following periods or in a way
where social and geographical spaces are split or overlap. In the fifth section,
the question will be posed as to how far the concept of multicultural education
is able to respond to the demands of new hybrid cultures that develop in most
immigration countries. A conclusion is given in the last section of the paper.
1. Multicultural Education
Post-war immigration into Germany did not challenge education for a long time
since work migration was regarded as temporary in the 1950s and 60s. When workers
began to settle - mainly as a result of the stop to workforce recruitment in
1973 - education had to deal with the situation of migrant children attending
German schools in large numbers. The first answer to this new challenge was
the concept of migrant education (Ausländerpädagogik(2)).
It took the German educational system a long time to react to the increasing
numbers of students from a non-German background in the late sixties and seventies.
This holds true for educational institutions like kindergartens and schools,
for the administering bodies like the ministries and the Standing Conference
of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs as also for research (cf.
Luchtenberg 1997 for details). All proposals and
measures in that period can be described as migrant-oriented approaches. These
early migrant-oriented approaches aimed at the improvement of learning conditions
for migrant children, the development of the new subject of German as a second
language and teacher training in order to make teachers familiar with the culture
of origin, i.e. educational conceptions, religion, female education, family
life, etc. especially of Turkey, but also of other countries of origin. These
approaches corresponded to the educational policies of the late sixties and
beginning seventies. The description is less positive when it becomes clear
that the pedagogy was deficit-oriented, since the deficits of migrant students
- the lack of German and knowledge of German culture and history - were the
central elements. The development of a migrant culture in Germany was neglected
in favor of dealing with the situation in the countries of origin which was
based on a rather static concept of culture. Remigration was also regarded as
a fact to be considered in developing programs. In many teacher training institutions
and universities, courses were developed and first professorships were awarded
to scholars for "Ausländerpädagogik", i.e. pedagogy for
migrants. This isolated view on the question soon led to critical approaches
that denied the necessity of such a "special" pedagogical approach,
but demanded a changed approach to all in a society that was changed by migration.
Thus, one of the sources for the development of multicultural education was
the criticism of this "education for foreigners" ("Ausländerpädagogik").
Other catalysts were the international discussion, e.g. within the Council of
Europe and in neighboring countries, but also practical approaches of private
initiatives where social work in mixed groups of migrant and German children
led to the development of multicultural concepts.
From the beginning, multicultural education laid great emphasis on culture
and mutual cultural exchange. In the beginnings of multicultural education,
relativism of cultures was taken for granted whereas the current view is that
the reflection on cultures is more complex. The role of culture implies several
difficulties:
- Mutual learning about cultures requires an awareness of cultural differences
in all questions, which supports a division into the own and the other - an
important, but not indisputable point in the multicultural education discourse.
Furthermore, the focus on differences deepens the feeling of being "foreign"
(cf. Hu 1998)
- Mutual learning about cultures easily creates the perception of ethnic and
cultural belongings as group belongings so that the individual is taken as
an example of a group
- Mutual learning about cultures denies limits in the acceptance of culture
- Mutual learning about cultures detracts from aspects of participation and
equal opportunities as well as from racism and ethnocentrism
- The focus on culture also makes it easier to include global aspects, e.g.
cultures of different nations and people (cf. section 2).
On account of the strong focus on culture in its present name, there have been
attempts to re-name the concept known as intercultural education in Germany(3)
with expressions like education of diversity, transnational education and others
(cf. Gundara 2000), but these have not been successful
and intercultural education remains the established term. The dilemma of this
expression becomes obvious, when for example, university students in teacher
training courses commonly define multicultural education as "dealing with
foreign cultures", which includes the cultures of migrant students, since
their cultures are regarded as foreign as well Due to the strong focus on culture,
multicultural education is in danger of neglecting other aspects such as equal
opportunities for all. Furthermore, a strong focus on culture increases the
danger of cultural attribution but obstructs while distracting from individual
diversity (cf. section 5).
In 1996, the Standing Conference
of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs launched a recommendation
on multicultural education, which can be taken as a sign of its formal acknowledgment
(Standing Conference 1996).
In Germany, integration
has become a key word in political, media and societal discourses when the focus
is on migration. This holds especially true with regard to new migrants and
those work migrants and their families who have lived here for a long time.
In recent discussions the fear has often been expressed that the development
of parallel societies endangers integration. The topic of "integration"
is also a major point in the new immigration law.
True integration - as opposed
to assimilation which is often meant when the word integration is used - has
always played an important role in multicultural education. This focus on integration
has demanded the support of mixed classes of German and non-German students
from the very beginning and the rejection of all kinds of separate classes.
Therefore, bilingual education has not been developed to a great extent, though
language has always played an important role in the concepts of multicultural
education (cf. Luchtenberg 2002). The importance
of learning German becomes an increasingly central point with new implications
like testing the linguistic competence of preschool children or the implementation
of lessons in German in kindergartens. A demand dating from the seventies and
eighties is also repeated when parents from a non-German background are asked
to speak German at home. These requests stem from the political arena, but not
from multiculturalists. These aspects became central issues again after the
results of the OECD-study PISA (OECD 2001) were published
since these results demand new measures from the schools and new efforts from
the migrants. The acquisition of good German in order to master school and professional
training in Germany is also called for but also school structures: One of the
big issues discussed at present in multicultural education in administration,
school reality and research is the organization of Islamic lessons in German
schools. Islamic lessons supervised by German authorities would serve several
purposes: Islam - and Muslim students - would experience integration into the
German school system but German authorities would gain control on what is taught.
Multicultural education can be regarded as an umbrella term:
This twofold task is the biggest change in comparison with migrant education
because now it is acknowledged that there is the need for a general change to
make all students aware of their multilingual and multicultural surroundings.
Further differences are:
- All students as the target group instead of an education that addresses
migrant students only;
- Orientation towards differences instead of deficits;
- Integration - not assimilation - as a main goal (cf. section
4).
If equal opportunities for migrant students are now a requirement, language skills
will also be in the center of the present discussion because they are regarded
as basics for school and professional careers. Furthermore, the consideration
of special needs - like mother tongue tuition or religious instructions - also
belongs here, as well as the consideration of special knowledge - like a further
language or language awareness.
Local diversity was the main reason for the development
of multicultural education in Germany. "Encountering" soon became a
keyword in the sense that students with different backgrounds should meet each
other, learn from each other and enrich one another.
In contrast to migrant education,
multicultural education thus deals also or, to be more precise, deals mainly with
changes in school life and in all subjects, which affect all students.
The development
of "multicultural schools" is in the heart of multicultural education.
Several studies prove that an understanding of diversity is developing even if
many tasks are still unfulfilled (cf., e.g. Auernheimer
2001; Auernheimer, Blumenthal, Stübig, Willmann 1996;
Auernheimer, Petzel, Wagner 2001; Gogolin,
Neumann 1997).
There are new issues to be dealt with in a multicultural education,
which has widened in scope since its beginnings. Among these we find the following
questions in research:
- The role of ethnocentrism and racism: What are adequate responses in education?
- Multicultural education and antiracist education
- The role of the media
- Cultural relativism of cultures or universalism
- The role of cultures and the danger of the imposition of a cultural identity by others
- The relationship between general and multicultural education
- The development of theoretical didactics of multicultural education
- The relationship between individual and group identity
- The acceptance of multiculturalism and multilingualism against the still existing conceptions of a homogenous monolingual country.
Although children and juveniles are the main target group of multicultural education,
elderly migrants have also become a target group of increasing importance in recent
years since, contrary to expectations, many older migrants stay in Germany because
their children and grandchildren live here. Migration has also become a topic
in Politics courses in all forms of further training (cf. Behrens,
Paufler 2002).
Multicultural education has gained influence in recent years
and some recognition. Yet, we have to ask what is the present status of multicultural
education in Germany. If we look at recent curricula and textbooks, we find that
a multicultural awareness is increasing. The presence of migrant students is taken
into consideration in many recent curricula, which, in turn, is connected with
an acceptance of diversity. We often find a mixture of external and internal approaches,
thus mixing an interest for indigenous cultures in America, European history and
diversity due to migration. This is not necessarily a negative approach though
the different branches should also be looked at in their own right (cf. section
2). Many newer textbooks have pictures of multiethnic classrooms, use names
from different languages, give examples from different cultures, include texts
by migrant authors(4) , and include phrases, words or even texts
in a language other than German. Yet, many formulations - especially in giving
tasks to students - reveal the old dichotomy between "them" and "us",
when, e.g. students are addressed in the following way: "Ask your foreign classmates
about their holiday traditions!" (cf. Kunz 2003).
Multicultural
education still has to combat a lot of stereotypes and established opinions, which
applies particularly to language use. Many teachers do not accept the use of the
mother tongue among a group of migrant students and these languages are not given
much space in schools, classrooms or subjects. Of course, it has to be clarified
when languages other than German can play a role in the classroom and what this
role could be. Studies (cf. e.g. Luchtenberg 1999;
Oomen-Welke 2000) found varying opportunities and reasons
to integrate the languages of students with a migrant background:
-
There are many occasions to compare the German language with other languages in
order to increase language awareness both in German and migrant students - this applies
particularly to German as a taught subject
-
Names and terms in these languages occur occasionally in subjects as Religion,
Geography or History: Here, a correct pronunciation could be gained by the expertise of migrant students
-
Migrant students may need a short clarifying talk on a topic with a classmate who
speaks the same mother tongue
-
A chat in their mother tongue during the break is a chance for those
migrant students not yet fluent in German to relax
-
Integrating migrant languages into school and classroom life indicates to migrant
students and their parents that their background is accepted.
Schools in Australia offer further examples of how and for what purpose regarding
how and why linguistic diversity can be integrated into school life: We often
find signs on doors to the staff room or the library in many languages to make
students as well as their parents feel at home. A generous system of interpreters
available in schools (as well as in other state institutions) proves acceptance
of linguistic diversity and the difficulties of coping with English -even if a
time limit is set on this help. (cf. Clyne 1997; Inglis
2004; Luchtenberg 2000). This positive attitude
no longer applies to language classes - a topic we are going to discuss with regard
to the German context later on (cf. section 3).
Teachers with
a qualification in multicultural education, German as a second language or Turkish
are welcomed in schools since their presence is often regarded as an alibi for
other teachers not to be involved in those tasks. It has also to be taken into
consideration that it is still possible to qualify as a teacher in Germany without
having dealt with a multicultural society and school and / or the needs of migrant
students. This applies to both phases of teacher training(5).
Thus, the acceptance of multicultural education has increased since the eighties
but not always in a way multicultural researchers would have hoped. The recent
discussion about integration and language learning indicates that there is a danger
of a backlash causing a relapse into a migrant-oriented attitude.
While in the
early days of migrant education most educational programs for migrant students
either aimed at a later return of those students into their countries of origin
or were directed towards a full assimilation into the German society - with the
exception of a short period where the educational bureaucracy demanded from schools
that they work for both aims simultaneously - concepts of multicultural education
take it for granted (if often only implicitly) that the migration is a permanent
one. Therefore, some measures or programs now have got new interpretations:
-
The focus is no longer on the culture in the countries of origin but on migration culture;
-
Mother tongue teaching is demanded no longer because of a possible return but because of the value
of bilingualism or the necessity of a family language;
-
The necessity of fluent competence in German is underlined by the goal of a desirable
professional career in Germany.
In the light of this fact, it is astonishing that there is such little reflection
on a citizenship education that addresses migrant students and refers to the diverse
society (cf. Luchtenberg 2004a). This is all the more
astonishing since such a necessity has been reflected worldwide, as well as in
Europe, for many years (cf. Banks 1997, 2004; Bell
1995; Friebel 1996; Hahn 1998;
Ichilov 1998; Lynch 1992). There is
an astonishing disparity between a multicultural education that emanates from
the assumption of a multicultural society with permanent migration and the lack
of enabling students - migrants as well as Germans - to understand the political
conditions of this multicultural society and -beyond that- its place in Europe
and in the world.
Furthermore, media education is not yet meeting the challenges
of a multicultural society though media competence has become one of the main
issues in education in recent years, mainly initiated by the new media and the
assumed danger of children and juveniles being attracted and misled by violence
in the new media on the one side, but also in television and video on the other
side. It has to be considered in media education that the media display another
challenge within multicultural education. It is with the help of the media that
most persons in a state get political information, which also holds true with
regard to migration and migrants. Much research has been done in Germany that
demonstrates the possibilities and responsibilities of the media within the process
of migration, integration and acceptance of multiculturalism though these studies
were not carried out on the basis of an educational interest. Migration and its
consequences are an important part of the media discourse in a multicultural society,
but German media are in general reluctant and do not always support diversity,
which is - to my findings from a German viewpoint - different in the immigration
country Australia with its explicit politics of multiculturalism, at least in
the serious press (cf. Luchtenberg, McLelland 1998).
It is necessary to deal with the migration and multiculturalism discourse in the
media in education in order to develop media competence that will enable students
to cope with the media in the sense of a critical literacy (cf. Cope,
Kalantzis 2000). Media education is mentioned in curricula in Political Education
in the German states (cf. Luchtenberg 2004a). Here
we find a common subject between Citizenship and Multicultural Education. Traditionally,
German is the subject where media are discussed. The migration discourse is not
in the center in media education in these subjects, if mentioned at all. Thus,
a way has to be found to integrate these topics into multicultural education within
different subjects since the development of media competence in a diverse society
- which we could refer to as multicultural media competence - is absolutely necessary.
However, this also poses the question of how multicultural media competence can
be described?// Thus, a way has to be found to integrate these topics into multicultural
education within different subjects since the development of media competence
in a diverse society is absolutely necessary. This competence could also be referred
to as multicultural media competence, which however also poses the question of
definition. It would include examining the way in which the media deal with multiculturalism
and especially the way in which they use language and pictures. Multicultural
media competence can be understood as an extension of a general critical media
competence because it is now applied in a diverse society. This includes:
- Detecting racist tendencies in the media
- Critical questioning of the treatment of migration: Naming of migrants, ethnic crime, topics etc.
- Acceptance of linguistic and cultural diversity in the media.
Multicultural media competence also has roots in the concept of multicultural
competence which can be described as the competence to cope with diversity one's
own society.
Summing up, we can state that multicultural education was developed in Germany
rather reluctantly in the eighties as a second answer to the challenge of the
presence of migrant students in the classes, when migrant education was no longer
regarded as an adequate one by many educationalists in practice and research
(cf. Luchtenberg 1997). Multicultural education
is to be understood as a concept with the two main tasks of improving the school
careers of students with a migrant background and preparing all students for
the life in a multicultural society. Furthermore, research within multicultural
education deals with all aspects of a diverse society and its education. It
should be mentioned that antiracist education could be understood as an integral
part of the task depicted in the right-hand side of the diagram above.
2. How to deal with global and local diversity in multicultural
education
Multicultural education with a focus on local diversity has helped to open
schools, curricula and schoolbooks for diversity due to migration (cf. Hoff
1995). Yet the term multicultural education was only very reluctantly taken
up by the educational administration. The word only really became quickly accepted
when it was transferred to international aspects, especially European ones (cf.
Luchtenberg 1996).
In 1988, the EC launched a directive, which requires that a European dimension
be realized in the schools of the member states (cf. The
Council 1988). In Germany, the realization of a European dimension is supported
by the Departments of Education in the various states of Germany; it was first
affirmed by the Standing Conference of the ministers of Education in Germany,
which in its resolution of 1990 referred to an earlier resolution on "Europe
in Education" of 1978, a fact which stresses the interest in Europe within German
policies (Kultusministerkonferenz 1990). While the German
directive refers to most proposals in the EC-directive, there are two important
differences, for the German document a) demands "a Europe of regions"
and b) mentions "foreign students as an example of the richness of European
culture", although this point is not elaborated upon.
The challenges of the European Union in 1993 and the implementation of the
European dimension into the educational system in Germany, due to the European
directive of 1988 (The Council 1988), gave main impulses
to broaden the concept of multicultural education to European and global perspectives.
European education and multicultural education were used nearly as synonyms
in the late eighties and early nineties, and this had the side effect of making
multicultural education an acceptable concept. The importance of dealing with
Europe was broadly accepted in the educational system and all states in Germany
tried to find a special approach to Europe in the late eighties and early nineties.
Yet, in many cases the realization looks more like an enhancement of topics
that were already part of the curriculum e.g. in geography or history of Europe,
a focus on European languages or an intensification of student exchange. The
challenge of the development of a European identity is only seldom tackled.
Besides the European dimension, global learning is also gaining in importance
and has mainly replaced the former "Learning about the Third World".
Certainly, there is a necessity for global openness, even more so in the light
of a coming United Europe for European education, but the danger is that the
more multicultural education is regarded as global or European education, the
less interest there will be in local diversity and the challenges it includes.
This can be best shown with regard to language education:
-
Multicultural education in Germany supports bilingual education of migrant students, though mainly in an uncoordinated way. They get extra help in learning German and they are in general entitled to receive mother tongue instruction, but these lessons are not coordinated. They are simply additional offers while students attend the regular German classes. Bilingual classes in the proper sense would make it necessary to separate migrant students and offer them instruction in linguistically homogenous classes, which is regarded as a contradiction to the ideal of integration. There are very few exceptions, like a concept of bilingual literacy courses where migrant students attend regular classes but learn to read and write parallel in both languages with the help of coordinated teamwork between the classroom teacher and the mother tongue teacher;
-
In recent years, mother tongue instruction has experienced two contradictory views: While the role of the mother tongue has been praised and is highly valued within a multicultural society - at least by educationalists -, the "burden" of dealing with another language in addition to German has been criticized as a barrier to learning proper German - mainly by politicians and the media. Furthermore, many teachers accept only reluctantly - if at all - the use of the mother tongue by migrant students among each other in school;
-
Due to the development in Europe, the interest in languages has increased since the late eighties as administration, schools and parents have realized the necessity of linguistic competence for the future of students. A new type of "bilingual classes" was created. In general, it addresses German students in regular classes, where they are taught more of their first foreign language (normally English) than usual in class 5 and 6. In addition to this, they are taught one or two subjects like geography or social studies in the target language from class 7 onwards;
-
A foreign language is now taught in primary schools. In North-Rhine/Westphalia, English as a foreign language replaces a concept that was created as part of multicultural education: The concept of "encountering languages" (Begegnungssprachenkonzept). Here, the focus was on languages that children can "meet" in their daily life. This refers to languages like Dutch and French at the Dutch and Belgian frontiers, and like Turkish, Italian or Portuguese etc. in schools where many children with these languages as their mother tongue guarantee the opportunity to practice them in interaction. Many parents who hoped for advantages for their children in secondary school, though this was not at all the idea behind the concept, of course, favored English. A further approach being considered for schools which do not accept one of the other approaches was "the language across the curriculum approach", which could also be combined very effectively with one of the other concepts;
-
"Multicultural learning" has become a goal in all language classes (English, French etc.) and foreign language didactics deal with multicultural learning. This type of multicultural learning focuses on British or French studies, either on contacts or exchanges with students in the countries of the target language or the occupation with the foreign culture.
Thus, the international view increases the interest in European languages but
denies the necessity of promoting mother tongue instruction (cf. Luchtenberg
2004a, b). The situation in schools has an interesting parallel in the media,
where broadcasting in the mother tongues of the immigrants has been dramatically
reduced in recent months.
This attitude holds true with regard to research on
intercommunication within Germany as well as in international intercultural communication.
Language is a good example for the switch from local diversity in multicultural
education towards more international aspects but, of course, not the only one.
Many proposals for multicultural contents refer to international aspects such
as African literature, the history of the Aboriginal people or Tibetan religion.
All these aspects are of relevance in a global society but to call them multicultural
learning makes it difficult to understand the diversity in one's own surroundings.
It is probably even easier to deal with the problem of Aboriginal people than
to reflect on racism in one's own community. It seems to be necessary to separate
international or external contents of multicultural education from those with
an internal character. This makes it clearer that one's own community is diverse
and this is important for migrants as well as for non-migrants. When the problems,
challenges and positive outcomes of such a diverse society are understood as a
main part of multicultural education, students will gain more responsibility for
their diverse society. This does not mean that European or global aspects are
of no relevance - indeed, quite the opposite in a world that is growing together.
However, dealing with Europe should not be confused with, nor can it replace dealing
with diversity that is part of everyday life. Teachers might otherwise claim to
be working in a multicultural way when they deal with Aboriginal arts. What we
need is a multicultural education that is aware of the threefold character of
multicultural education and serves internal as well as external issues without
mixing them in a way that allows external contents to be misunderstood as the
only form of multicultural education. Of course, there are topics where internal
and external aspects may coincide but this situation is not yet the rule.
We find
a comparable approach in the media where, e.g., Muslim holidays like the beginning
of Ramadan is mentioned with an example from Egypt or Saudi-Arabia but not from
a neighborhood mosque. Thus, they give international global information but neglect
that Islam plays an important role in Germany.
This media approach can easily
amplify the school attitude of confusing internal and external aspects of multicultural
education. It contributes to neglecting the necessity of exploring the diversity
in Germany. To sum up, we can confirm the necessity of a multicultural education
which combines dealing with local, European and global diversity, but which at
the same time must give all three aspects a place to assert themselves in their
own right. There is a challenge to balance global and European perspectives and
local diversity (cf. Vermeulen 1997 for the situation
in other European countries).
3. How to improve the results of migrant students
Multicultural education has emphasized the necessity of preparing all students
to cope with the conditions in a multilingual and multicultural society and
furthermore in a European and global context. There is also a strong effort
to combat racism. All these tasks can be related to the right-hand side of the
diagram, which we have already examined in section 1: Now this diagram is related
to a further challenge since not only the PISA-study (OECD 2001)
but also the annual school statistics show that the requirements for the component
on the left are far from being fulfilled in Germany.
According to statistics published by the Kultusministerkonferenz (2003),
nearly 20% of migrant students left school in the year 2000 without gaining
a certificate - which is about double the amount of German students without
a certificate. This had not changed at the end of the school year 2002/03 (Statistisches
Bundesamt 2005). Furthermore, statistics show a clear overrepresentation
of students with a migrant background in Hauptschulen(6) ,
Sonderschulen(7) and Gesamtschulen(8) .
This is in sharp contrast to the fact that German students mainly attend grammar
schools or secondary modern schools. Statistics have to be read with care, since
there are only two categories "German students" and `foreign students',
which in turn give only a very rough picture because of the focus on the passport(9)
. Many migrant students or students with migrant parents are not in the statistics
because they have got German nationality. This is particularly relevant in the
case of the group of the re-settlers ("Aussiedler"). These are the
descendents of Germans who have settled in the former Russian empire since the
17th century. Since most of them suffered during World War II due to their German
origin they are entitled to "return" to Germany and, in most cases,
to gain German nationality. It has to be feared that the negative numbers would
increase even further if we could get statistics about students with a migrant
background regardless of their citizenship.
Most juveniles with a migrant background attend a "Hauptschule", which is the
academically lowest secondary school within the German selective school system
(cf. Jonen, Boele 2001 on the German school system). In
2002/03, about 40% of migrant students left school with a secondary school leaving
certificate of the "Hauptschule" while merely about 24% of the German students
left school with only this qualification. The most important difference between
both groups can be found in the results for a certificate that qualifies students
to begin a study at a university, at a polytechnic or at a college. While nearly
25% of the German students reached this level, only about 9% of the non-German
students did so (Statistisches Bundesamt 2005). Even
if these results can be read as an improvement compared with 15 or 20 years
ago, they show a failure of the German school system in bringing forward the
school careers of students with a migrant background.
These results are rather severe if one reflects the fact that the secondary
school leaving certificate of the "Hauptschule" has lost its status in the last
decade since many professions that could be learnt with this certificate nowadays
demand a higher qualification. These structural problems with the German school
(system) have been labeled as institutional discrimination (cf. Gomolla,
Radtke 2002).
Further facts undermine the poor situation of migrant children in the German
school system:
-
They attend special schools - especially those for children with learning difficulties - far more than German students;
-
They have to repeat classes more often than German students;
-
They stay longer in a preschool class.
PISA has given some hints on how to answer the question why this is so, though
it has by far not explained all the facts (
OECD 2001; cf.
Auernheimer 2002).
- The PISA study has shown that in Germany school fails to close the social
gap between the students. Migrant students are particularly affected by this
fact since many migrant families still belong to socially disadvantaged groups.
Thus migrant students face the difficulty of coping in a second language and
being disadvantaged because of their social group;
- A special part of the PISA-study within the German evaluation has found
that teachers were not able to find out which of their students had the lowest
ability in reading. The discussion about this fact has revealed that German
teachers lack a competence in diagnosis that is not taught at university during
their teacher training. Only the teachers qualified to teach German as a second
language have been trained in diagnosis, but they are a minority;
- A main problem is the lack of supports that students in general and migrant
students in particular experience in the German school system. This is partly
due to its selective structure, in which students are sent to different schools
when they fail in one, or, at the very least, they have to repeat one grade.
Thus, teachers always have an alternative solution to that of encouraging
and fostering a student. In fact, the school system even appears to prefer
selective solutions to supporting ones. It can also be assumed that the half-day-school
system does not leave enough time to give weak students further help and assistance
or to coordinate extra lessons like mother tongue teaching and German as a
second language;
- The selective school system is a problem in itself since school careers
are decided at a very early age (at the age of 10), even if there are "second
chances": These are generally more complicated than the straightforward careers;
- The selective school system, as well as the measure of repeating
a class, furthermore implies the appreciation of homogeneity especially with
regard to achievements. This appreciation can easily be transferred to other
forms of homogeneity so that a hesitative attitude towards diversity may also
stem from here.
Admittedly, a lot of special programs have been established in the last years
but most of them are only locally applied in some schools. Examples of these are
- Bilingual literacy classes in Berlin ("Zweisprachige Klassen"),
Hesse ("Koala"), parts of North-Rhine/Westphalia ("Schubile"):
Here mainly Turkish students who attend a regular class learn to read and
write in both languages - German and Turkish - within a coordinated system
of mother tongue teaching, team teaching and classroom teaching. The German
students are not forced to learn Turkish but some learn at least a little.
In the following grades of the primary school texts are read in both languages
and grammar knowledge is deepened. Secondary schools are not included so far;
- Turkish is taught as a regular language in secondary schools in some regions,
mainly in North-Rhine/Westphalia. In this state, student teachers can qualify
in Turkish at the university of Duisburg-Essen, together with a second subject
since it is the rule in Germany that a teacher teaches at least two subjects
that he or she has studied at university. These students are mainly second-generation
students with a Turkish background so that there is also a chance of having
regular teachers with a migrant background in a few years, which might contribute
to a multicultural understanding of school;
- New programs have been developed in different states, e.g. in Bavaria and
North-Rhine/Westphalia, partly in schools, partly in preschool institutions
where not only the children are addressed, but also their mothers. The latter
learn German (sometimes with the explicit aim that they are thus better prepared
to help their children with their homework), but, in order to support bilingual
competence, they are also encouraged to work with their children at home in
the same subjects that have been dealt with in school or kindergarten and
using their mother tongue.
While such bilingual programs are being developed in some institutions, the mainstream
discourse in politics and media has turned in a different direction. The general
discussion about a new immigration law ("Zuwanderungsgesetz") has deepened
the call for integration, which is increasingly regarded as an obligation that
migrants have with a strong focus on learning or improving German. While the immigration
law focuses mainly on adults when integration is discussed, this discussion -
together with the PISA-results - has brought the integration discussion back to
schools as well. Different measures are asked for:
-
Tests for school beginners in order to make sure they know enough German to follow a regular school class. Partly bilingual tests are being considered, but not everywhere;
-
Besides the criticism of such tests and their construction as well as questioning the facts they really give, the crucial question is, what should be done with and for those children who fail the test?
-
Different answers occur to this question, which include the proposals to send them to a preschool until they have learnt enough German or to give them a crash course until the school year starts;
-
The idea of using the preschool institutions for language teaching is also being discussed. This would affect mainly kindergartens. Here another problem occurs: Kindergarten teachers are by no means qualified to teach languages and most institutions do not see their task in such a strict preparation for school;
-
On the other hand, tests in Berlin for all school beginners have shown that many German students have also failed. This could lead to two different measures: Either to changing the program in class 1 or to instructing kindergarten institutions to deal more with language competence for all children.
In this new political and media debate on the integration of migrant students,
integration has to be understood as the demand that migrant students have to learn
enough German before school so that they do not trouble the school. Logically
therefore, the focus is mostly on German, but certainly not on bilingualism or
intercultural communication. Citizenship education is also not discussed, although
it would help migrant students to cope with their special situation and probably
also help them to understand the political situation in Europe. This would form
a connection to the European dimension (cf. Luchtenberg
2004a).
(Intercultural) educationalists do not deny that the problem of school
failure is strongly connected with insufficient knowledge of German. But they
see the proximity of the programs and measures so far discussed to a deficit-oriented
migrant education while the structure, programs, curricula of the institution
school are not or only very little questioned, as might be necessary and appropriate
in a multicultural society. Simple measures - as taken in the Australian state
of New South Wales (cf. Board of Education 1998a, 1998b,
1998c) -- could be for example
-
To train all teacher students in German as a second language so that the math or chemistry teacher knows about the difficulties of migrant students in coping with a subject in a target language;
-
To refer to German as a second language in the curriculum for German;
-
To integrate the mother tongue teachers and allow for more team teaching.
Such measures would especially help with the fact that many students with a migrant
background are easily able to communicate in German but fail when it comes to
special or technical language.
Nearly no coordinated bilingual education exists.
This task of coordinating their two languages is left to the bilingual students
themselves who attend German speaking classes, get additional support in German
as a second language and can be taught in their mother tongue for up to 5 hours
per week depending on the conditions in their school or school district. Mother
tongue tuition has improved in Germany since the seventies when it was mainly
regarded as a support for remigration (cf. Reich, Reid 1992).
There are two models of responsibility: In some states mother tongue tuition is
organized by the countries of origin who send the teachers while the German school
system only offers the rooms. In most states, however, mother tongue tuition is
organized by the German school administration that recruits the teachers and supervises
them. To attend a mother tongue class is not compulsory for the students. Some
states now offer a variety of languages including Kurdish or Farsi, at least in
big cities or places with a large community speaking these languages. There are
some schools where students can choose their mother tongue as a regular second
language - this applies mainly to Turkish.
Summing up, we can state that the failure
of many migrant students in the German school system has led to a disparity between
politics and research in education as regards both the assessment of the causes
and the search for an appropriate solution.
Schools and teachers themselves feel
overburdened by the tasks they have to face and unable to solve the problem without
help (cf. Extra, Yagmur 2002 for the situation in Europe
with a focus on migrant languages).
4. How to meet the challenges of transmigration in education
Educational research within multicultural education now has also to meet the
fact that not all immigration is permanent, because there is an increasing trend
towards transmigration processes (cf. Pries 2001). Permanent
migration has been understood as a more or less unidirectional movement from
one nation-state to another, including the possibility of remigration as a second
step that can be regarded as a unidirectional movement as well since it is also
a permanent process. Now we face different forms of migration in the late 20th
and beginning 21st century where globalization plays a key role, though the
pattern of transnational migration in the sense of migrating either between
two or more countries several times or of migrating into different countries
successively are not completely new as, e.g. the prospectors in the gold rushes
of the 19th century prove. To a certain extent, the earlier "guest worker"-model
could also be understood as a form of transnational, time-limited migration
- at least the way in which these migrations were intended (cf. Pries
2004 for a model of varieties of internationalization).
Transmigration is understood as a specific type of migration in transnational
social spaces (Glick Schiller, Basch, Szanton Blanc 1997;
Pries 2001). It is shown that migrants develop multidirectional
patterns of migration with different social and spatial relations. These patterns
may differ between groups as well as between individuals. These shifts in social
reality challenge the framework for analysis in social science as well as in
educational theory and practice, though asylum seekers and refugees have always
been regarded as non-permanent migrants, so that multicultural education could
not completely focus on multiculturalism as a permanency. These transnational
patterns have been very much facilitated by the European Union where the workforce
can work for an unlimited time in any of the member states, but also move to
one or more other states during their working life. This has changed for e.g.
the migration possibilities for migrants within Europe from Italy, Greece, Spain
and Portugal, since these states are now member states of the EU and thus their
workers can come to and leave Germany without restrictions (besides the necessity
of finding work). In contrast, migrant workers from Turkey, who might want to
resettle in Turkey for a while, would lose their work permit in Germany. Yet
a special phenomenon of transmigration can be observed within the Turkish community
where members of the second generation tend to choose a partner from Turkey.
This influences language acquisition and language behavior and has to be taken
into consideration in teaching.
Pries (2004, 30) defines transmigration as a "new
ideal type of migration that describes a modern variant of the nomadic way of
life", a type of migration which will gain even more relevance in the future.
It is therefore necessary that education - especially multicultural education
- deals with this phenomenon and tries to find educational solutions for the
offspring of transmigrating families.
Many challenges in education result from new forms of migration. A main question
is language education. So far, it focuses far more on fluency in German than
on bilingualism. We have to ask whether children from families with a high mobility
are sufficiently trained in this way and what the alternatives could be. Certainly,
the optimal approach would be to offer them bilingual education in their home
language and in German, especially when it is uncertain how long the family
will stay in Germany. Other solutions could follow the pattern of national schools
in Germany, like in the Japanese communities, although most multicultural educationalists
would bewail the lost chance of mutual learning. European schools as offered
for the children of members of European institutions like the Central Reserve
Bank or the European Patent Office show a different solution by focusing on
German, mother tongue and English. These schools are regarded as elite schools
and therefore probably only available for children of some transnational migrants.
Besides this, there are only very few of them in Germany. In general, schools
will not be flexible enough to offer different language packages for a multitude
of children of transnational families so that there is no real linguistic solution
for them. They do need German in order to cope in the German school system as
long as their parents work here. There could be an approach for those children
whose parents know definitely how long they will stay in Germany, which may
well be the case with regard to representatives of foreign firms. If these children
are registered in a school in their home city, this school could provide them
with a kind of portfolio or register with which they could be educated in different
schools. This model is adapted from the way in which education is offered for
children whose parents work in a circus. In any case, a high amount of flexibility
and extra work is demanded from schools and teachers.
This also applies to a rather pragmatic problem: so far, schools have nearly
no concepts for students who enter school in the course of a school year, but
this can easily happen in families with high mobility.
Multicultural education has a strong focus on social education - this can be
explained by the fact that work and refugee migrants were so far mainly underprivileged
and marginalized. Transnational migrants are often highly qualified persons
of good social standing (though this not necessarily the case cf. Pries (2004).
It has to be asked whether the social education approaches have to be modified
with regard to this latter group, but naturally without neglecting migrants
with a low social standing. It could also be argued that the presence of migrant
students with a high-class background could help to overcome the marginalisation
of migrant students in many contexts and could lead to a different view of migration.
This was, for e.g., the case in Sweden where mother tongue tuition was offered
from the very beginning to all students who had one none-Swedish speaking parent
regardless of the social status. In Germany, the danger of this argument is
that it could lead to two classes of migrants as already to be found in the
political discourse on migration.
So far, integration is the keyword in political as well as in educational discussions
on migration. It has to be questioned whether the model of integration in the
concept of multiculturalism is compatible with transmigration where migrants
live in more than one social and spatial context, either at the same time, in
consecutive periods or in a way where social and geographical spaces are split
or overlap. In the educational discourse, integration is understood in contrast
to the concept of assimilation and the political use of the word integration
is often more in the sense of assimilation than integration. In the educational
discourse, assimilation is defined as the (enforced) abandonment of the culture
and language a migrant was used to. Integration is, in contrast to this, the
possibility to continue to cultivate the family language and traditions as long
as they do not contradict German law. At the same time, integration includes
the possibility to fully participate, e.g., in education as well as to build
up relations to German society.
There can be no doubt that migration always demands a lot of assimilation with
regard to many aspects even if we only look at school life: There are rules
which have to be followed like punctuality, cleanliness, parent-teacher-communication,
participation in activities, etc. The recent conflict with regard to the headscarf,
the arguments about the participation of female Muslim students in sports or
sex education show that migrants are beginning to question the demands for assimilation.
This may finally lead to further discussions about the cohesion in society -
a question that is important in all immigration countries. Here the main question
is how much a society or, better said, their members have to have in common
to be cohesive.
With regard to students with a transnational background, the assimilative approach
in the described educational understanding is even less acceptable than it is
for permanent or quasi-permanent migrants. The integrative approach allows them
to maintain the first language and cultural bounds, but there is also an expectation
of belonging and participation, which in some cases may be more than transnational
migrants will be able to contribute. This problem is similar to the case of
Diasporas where the exclusion from the host society is even stronger. On the
other hand, if the topic is reflected in the light of hybrid cultural belongings,
we may come to different assessments (see the next section).
The ways in which assimilation and integration are discussed in the multi-educational
discourse are different from those in the social sciences where a controversial
discussion about transnational migrations versus assimilation has occurred (cf.
Bommes 2003). While exponents of the latter opinion argue
that assimilation still matters because no successful participation in a society
is supposed to be possible without assimilation, those of the transnational
fraction refer to the fact that many modern migrants live neither in the old
nor in the new society but in "plurilocal social spaces" where they built up
new relations and belongings of a new quality in and between the local and social
spaces. A third opinion is related to the fact that even a life in two or more
countries demands forms of assimilation like acceptance of working conditions
in the one and social behavior within a family in the other. Thus, assimilation
in the context of transnational migrations is defined as a competence of participation
- in different social, economic and cultural systems (Bommes
2003). Transnational migrants have to become bi- or multilingual to cope
in different places, an argument that brings us back to the question of the
best language education for their children. Such linguistic competences are
an unquestioned goal in all forms of elite education and would easily be adopted
for children of high-class transmigrant parents, but it has to be kept in mind
that not all of them belong to these classes. Transnational migrants also have
to be rather flexible in order to cope with different systems without being
opportunistic. If we assume that transnational migrations will increase due
to the European and global involvement of economies, multilingualism as well
as flexibility have to be part of the curricula for all students as is partly
already the case. Yet, children of transnational migrants in classes demand
special care as mentioned above.
The European development is a further issue in the context of transnational
migration because the European Union not only supports transmigration in the
described sense by its legislation, but also adds further aspects by pushing
the development of European identity, which means that a new social and geographical
space emerges. The concept of European identity also presents a good example
how it is possible to develop a sense of belonging to different linguistic and
cultural entities. The European dimension in school even demands the development
of such competencies without being a migrant. Thus, the European dimension in
the curricula can contribute to preparing students for a possible work migration
within Europe. Since the concept of the European dimension has to be implemented
in all European countries and even to be reported to the EU, a successful realization
would be a helpful preparation for such transnational migration movements in
the later life of the students, as the chances of these taking place are quite
high. Yet, transmigration is not limited to European migrants as the search
for IT-workers has quite recently shown.
The challenges of transnational migration have only recently been considered
and are still not in the center of multicultural education. It would certainly
not be appropriate to make transnational migration central to multicultural
education, but it has to be considered, especially in the sense that these different
forms of migration - and thus migrant students - will all be together in classes
including monolingual Germans, so that a broad range of concepts has to be combined
to find a suitable education for all students. To some extent, this development
leads to a new mixture of local, European and global aspects of multicultural
education. This is certainly a task that can only be solved in a European, if
not global approach.
In conclusion, we have to state that the migration pattern in Germany, as well
as in other parts of the world, has become more complex. At the same time, PISA
has shown that the present educational approach in Germany is not adequate for
its present migrant students who belong mostly to permanent migration families
so that it will be difficult both to improve the present situation as well as
to consider further challenges. Yet, there is a chance that the three levels
of multicultural education discussed above will give help in the further development
of a multicultural education that is able to meet new tasks (cf. Luchtenberg
2004b for a discussion of these challenges within Europe).
5. Hybrid cultures as a challenge for multicultural education
For a long time, an often-used metaphor to describe children with a migrant
background was that "they fall between two stools" (cf. Kunz
2000). This metaphor indicates an understanding of cultural and social belonging
which is extremely one-sided in its comprehension since it takes it for granted
that individuals can only belong to one culture or one cultural group. Meanwhile,
there is a growing understanding among German (multi) educationalists, that
one can belong to different cultures and develop an identity of one's own, though
this metaphor of being "between" is still vivid. It was used especially
often to describe the situation of female Muslims in Germany, which was regarded
to be hopeless since, from a single-minded German viewpoint they were forced
to live in their Turkish culture though longing to become part of the German
youth culture. To a certain extent, it was the discussion about young female
Muslims wearing headscarves that helped to overcome this assessment at least
partly, because it turned out that young female Muslims with a headscarf regard
themselves as emancipated and many of them show this in their behavior as students
or professionals (cf. Karakasoglu 2003).
It is also meanwhile more or less common sense that individuals in modern societies
participate in different groups without "falling between two stoolsv. If a German
can be a member of his or her church group and at the same time a football fan
of Bavaria Munich as well as being a member of a leftist party, there is no
reason why a migrant cannot be member of his or her Muslim group, the Conservative
party and a supporter of Bavaria Munich as well. Thus, individuals in modern
societies tend to develop multiple or hybrid identities without any damage to
their personality - on the contrary, it is this form of identity that helps
them to cope in a complex society and to answer global demands (cf. Castles
& Miller 1993 for further discussion).
Recent studies show that young migrants have found different ways to demonstrate
their manifold belongings. One example is described by Hinnenkamp (2003)
as the development of an "autonomous hybrid code". He has studied Turkish juveniles
who, besides speaking their two languages - Turkish and German - master a third
language with elements taken out of both languages so that a new kind of language
emerges. Thus they prove that they will not be tied to either German or Turkish
but that they have developed an identity of their own. Such studies are still
an exception, but youth music scenes also indicate this kind of hybridism, which
is here transferred into music styles so that elements of modern Western music
are combined with those of Turkey or Northern Africa. Hybridism is thus to be
found within individuals but also within cultures or cultural items such as
language or music.
In education we still generally find a strong trend to divide between cultural
affiliations often related to ethnicity. A teacher might therefore assume "Turkish"
chauvinistic behavior in a student with Turkish background who dislikes a female
teacher or expect a Moroccan girl to contribute North African food to the school
festival. These attitudes, which also occur outside of school, are criticized
as cultural or ethnic attribution (cf. Çaglar 1990).
Surely, individual forms of hybridism like the development of a mixed language
are also protests against these attributions which allow only "either-or" but
neither mixed forms nor the possibility of feeling at home in different cultures.
Yet, it is certain that more and more students will demand manifold social and
cultural affiliations or even present themselves as individuals with several
belongings. This is also a result of a recent representative study among female
juveniles with a migrant background (Boos-Nünning, Karakasoglu
2005).
What are the educational challenges that are related to this development? Educators
have to abandon the postulation of cultural clearness and instead to cope with
a high amount of ambiguity. Therefore, they have to be trained in ambiguity
tolerance to an even higher level than the competence considered up to now:
It was assumed that members of multicultural societies need ambiguity tolerance
because they meet different cultures daily or, to be more precise, persons with
different cultures. This concept still allows cultural and ethnic attribution.
The new quality of ambiguity tolerance has to make individuals competent to
meet a high amount of hybridism within cultural items and within individuals.
Here, cultural and ethnic attribution will disappear to a high degree so that
each individual has to be treated as unique. Of course, there are also individuals
who tend to focus on a culture in building up an identity - a fact that has
to be accepted and supported as well as hybridism in others. If we relate the
uniqueness-approach to the tendency of schools in Germany to produce homogeneity
we face a structural problem which teachers alone will not be able to overcome.
The development of hybrid cultures and hybrid identities in individuals collides
with the assimilation concept as it is used in the political discourse. It also
partly contradicts the integration concept as used in multicultural education.
The (multi) educational concept of integration emanates from the perception
of cultures and persons with cultural belongings. Flexibility is required to
apply the concept of integration to the hybrid context without abandoning the
concept of cultural belongings.
The perception of the hybridism of cultures and identities could also help to
overcome the fear of "parallel societies" or "ghettos" as ethnic communities
are often called when it can be assumed that a person can participate in the
life of his or her ethnic community and still be a citizen of, e.g. Munich.
If the concept of the hybridism of cultures and identities is applied to the
assimilation concept as used in the social sciences, it is then the decision
of that person as to which social, economic and cultural systems he or she will
take part in. It remains a task of school and multicultural education to deal
with these options and to prepare for a life in a very complex society, a complexity
that is much larger still when the European and global aspects are taken into
consideration.
To sum up, we underline the necessity of exploring and dealing with the development
of hybrid cultures and identities within multicultural education in order to
meet the challenges of another understanding of cultures and the chance to finally
overcome the danger of ethnic and cultural attribution that is still alive in
schools and beyond.
6. Conclusions
In this paper, we have assumed that Germany as a sustainable linguistically
and culturally diverse society needs multicultural education as the most appropriate
concept to meet the challenges this involves. While such a development is slowly
being accepted in Germany, especially since the recommendations of the Standing
Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs and research projects
have been launched (Standing Conference 1996), new challenges
can be named that have to be met in the years to come.
Among these challenges, two can be described as immanent within the concept
of multicultural education, and somehow still unfulfilled tasks: the differentiation
between internal and external multicultural education is the one, and the unsatisfactory
school careers of students with a migrant background have to be named as the
other. Here it is necessary to sharpen the senses for differences as for issues
in common especially in the theoretical development of multicultural education
with regard to the first challenge. The second task demands measures in school
administration and schools that partly contradict the usual philosophy as that
for e.g. of the homogeneous class. To develop multicultural media competence
is a challenge that derives from two sources: media education on one side and
the migration discourse in media on the other side. Together, they show the
necessity to introduce students into the ways in which media present a migration
discourse.
There are two more challenges we have dealt with in this paper: Transnational
migration and hybridism in cultures and individual identities. Both belong to
a development in our diverse society where migrants follow new patterns of migration
insofar as they no longer intend permanent migration but plan for a restricted
time of migration, while others switch between their homeland and the country
of immigration several times or move to different countries. This is the most
difficult situation for schools to prepare for. At the same time they have to
prepare students for the possibilities of such forms of a professional life,
which at least in Europe may become most common. Hybridism in cultures and in
individuals has been described above as a challenge and a chance at the same
time, since it really is a chance to overcome one of the negative outcomes of
multicultural education: the cultural and ethnic attribution.
Multicultural education is a rather young concept and still in the process of
development. Thus, it should be capable of meeting the challenges that now occur
and of offering at least first answers to the demands of the near future.
Notes
(1) There is a much larger amount of literature in German
on the questions discussed here, but I have tried to focus on literature in
English for this paper, when available.
(2) "Ausländerpädagogik" translated literally
means pedagogy or education for foreigners. This definition is of importance
as regards the approach concerned which was migrant- but also deficit-oriented.
The term "interkulturelle Pädagogik" i.e. multicultural education
has only been in use since the 1980s and the term "Migrant" (migrant)
as opposed to "Ausländer" (foreigner) has only begun to be used
in public life even more recently, though still not exclusively.
(3) Intercultural education is used synonymously with multicultural
education, especially in texts written in English.
(4) A migrant literature - written by migrants or their descendents
- has developed in Germany since the seventies. Some texts are of high quality,
often with migration as a backdrop (cf. Amodeo 1996; Chiellino
2000; Luchtenberg 1989).
(5) To become a teacher, you have to study two subjects plus
education at a university or other teacher training institution for 3 or 4 years
depending on the type of school you intend to teach in later. These studies
end with a state examination (1. Staatsexamen) and are followed by 1-2 years
in practice combined with studies at a teacher college completely organized
by school districts and "Länder" administration (the "Länder"
are the 16 individual German states). This phase ends with a further state examination
(2. Staatsexamen) after which the candidate can apply for a teaching position
- more or less nation wide.
(6) Hauptschule is a school for the academically challenged
students, which they leave after 9 or 10 years - depending on the state - with
a qualifying diploma.
(7) Special schools.
(8) Comprehensive schools, which in some states exists almost
on a par with the Grammar School (Gymnasium), while in others there are only
very few comprehensive schools.
(9) In the statistics you find information about different
national groups within the group of non-German students as well as about differences
with regard to the 16 German states.
(10) There is a much larger amount of literature in German
on the questions discussed here, but I have tried to focus on literature in
English for this paper, when available.
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Keywords: identity, integration, assimilation, multicultural education, migration, migrant, migrant children, migrant student, transmigration, hybrid culture, difference, diversity, equality, migrant education, Ausländerpädagogik, relativism, universalism, didactics, multiculturalism, multilingualism, multicultural society, citizenship education, German, Turkish
